FEATURE
The History of Native American Two Spirit People
Indigenous cultures have long recognized Two Spirit individuals, those who embody both masculine and feminine spirits, as respected healers and leaders. Colonization suppressed these identities, but today, efforts to reclaim and honor Two Spirit traditions are strengthening Indigenous communities and cultural resilience.
April 24, 2025
Two Spirit Couple
Two Spirit Society
Two Spirit Society
Two Spirit Couple
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By Taylor Adams
Throughout the diverse cultures of Native American and First Nations peoples, gender identity has never been confined to the binary understanding imposed by European settlers. Long before colonization, many Indigenous communities across North America recognized and honored individuals who embodied both masculine and feminine spirits. Today, these individuals are known under the umbrella term "Two Spirit," a modern phrase that reflects an ancient and deeply rooted Indigenous perspective on gender and identity.
Before European contact, many Native American tribes recognized multiple gender roles beyond the male-female binary. More than 150 Indigenous nations across North America had distinct names and roles for Two Spirit people, integrating them into social and ceremonial life with respect and reverence. The term "Two Spirit" itself originates from the Ojibwe phrase "niizh manidoowag," which translates to "two spirits," signifying a person who carries both masculine and feminine energies.
Two Spirit individuals could be born biologically male or female but lived according to the gender roles that best aligned with their spirit, gifts, and calling. These roles varied from tribe to tribe but commonly included spiritual leadership, healing, artistry, and caretaking. In some cultures, Two Spirit people were revered as visionaries and shamans, bridging the physical and spiritual worlds. Their unique position in society allowed them to perform sacred rites, conduct marriages, and serve as intermediaries between men and women in their communities.
Two Spirit people occupied esteemed positions in their respective tribes. They often acted as medicine people, caregivers, and keepers of oral traditions. Their ability to transcend traditional gender roles allowed them to fulfill roles that required deep spiritual insight and understanding of both masculine and feminine perspectives.
In some nations, such as the Lakota, Two Spirit people, known as "winkte," were believed to possess special spiritual gifts and were integral to the tribe’s rituals and ceremonies. The Navajo recognized "nadleehi," individuals whose gender expression was fluid and who held roles as healers and educators. Similarly, the Zuni acknowledged "lhamana," a designation for people who performed both male and female roles within their society.
Image: Two Spirit Society, Adobe Stock
Two Spirit individuals were often entrusted with the education of children, as their balanced perspective was thought to instill wisdom and harmony. They also played a crucial role in matchmaking, conflict resolution, and sacred dances that connected their people to the divine.
The term "Two Spirit" is not a one-size-fits-all identity; it is an umbrella term that encompasses a wide range of gender expressions and roles specific to different tribes. Each Indigenous nation had its own understanding and terminology for gender diversity. Some tribes recognized three, four, or even more gender categories beyond just male and female.
Unlike Western concepts of gender and sexuality, Two Spirit identity is deeply connected to community roles and spiritual beliefs. It is not strictly about sexual orientation but rather about a holistic identity that encompasses gender, social function, and cultural significance. Two Spirit individuals could engage in relationships with either men or women, but their identity was primarily defined by their spiritual and communal role rather than whom they loved.
The arrival of European colonizers brought profound changes to Indigenous ways of life, including the suppression of gender diversity. Christian missionaries and settlers imposed rigid binary gender norms and patriarchal structures that clashed with Indigenous traditions. Two Spirit people, once revered, were suddenly demonized and persecuted.
Colonization introduced policies that sought to erase Two Spirit identities. Boarding schools, forced assimilation, and religious conversions stripped Native communities of their traditional understanding of gender. Indigenous people were forced to conform to Western gender roles, and those who resisted faced severe punishment, violence, and social exclusion.
The effects of this historical trauma are still felt today. Many Indigenous individuals struggle with reclaiming their Two Spirit identities due to centuries of oppression. The stigma surrounding gender diversity, introduced by colonization, has led to discrimination within both Native and non-Native communities, resulting in higher rates of mental health struggles, homelessness, and violence against Two Spirit people.
Despite the historical oppression, Two Spirit people have been reclaiming their identities and cultural significance. The modern term "Two Spirit" was formally adopted at a Native American LGBTQ+ gathering in Winnipeg, Canada, in 1990 as a way to unify and honor traditional gender diversity within Indigenous cultures. This term allows Native people to reconnect with their ancestral roles while distinguishing their identity from Western LGBTQ+ labels.
Across North America, Two Spirit organizations and advocacy groups have emerged, fostering cultural revitalization, community support, and political activism. These organizations work to educate both Native and non-Native communities about the history and contemporary experiences of Two Spirit individuals, striving to restore the reverence and respect that existed before colonization.
The Two Spirit Society of Denver, Colorado, was a group that worked toward this mission. Colorado has been home to diverse Indigenous nations, including the Ute, Arapaho, and Cheyenne, all of whom have gender-diverse individuals within their historical communities. The Two Spirit Society of Denver was founded in the early 2000s and grew into a vital support network for Two Spirit people in the region. The organization recognized a spectrum of gender identities beyond the Western binary and promoted cultural education, advocacy, and community engagement. The society acknowledged at least five gender identities, reflecting the diverse understandings of gender within Indigenous traditions. With a growing membership, the society played a key role in revitalizing Two Spirit traditions, hosting events, and fostering a sense of belonging among Indigenous LGBTQ+ individuals in Colorado. However, the Two Spirit Society of Denver is no longer active. The organization was dissolved by the Colorado Secretary of State after failing to file the required IRS documents for over a year.
Colorado is home to a significant Native American population. Approximately 56,010 individuals identify as American Indian or Alaska Native, representing just under one percent of the state's population. In Denver alone, about 7,000 residents identify as American Indian or Alaska Native, comprising just over one percent of the city's population.
Image: Two Spirit Society, Adobe Stock
The dissolution of the Two Spirit Society of Denver has left a void in support services for Two Spirit individuals within Colorado's Native American community. Given the substantial Indigenous population in the state, there is a pressing need for a new Two Spirit Society charter. Such an organization would provide essential cultural education, advocacy, and community engagement, fostering a sense of belonging and support for Two Spirit and LGBTQ+ Indigenous individuals in Colorado.
The resurgence of Two Spirit identity is a testament to Indigenous resilience. By reclaiming traditional gender roles, Two Spirit people are not only restoring their place within their communities but also challenging colonial frameworks that have long sought to erase them. As more Indigenous youth embrace their Two Spirit heritage, there is hope for a future in which these individuals can once again hold the respected roles they were meant to fulfill.
Today, powwows, gatherings, and cultural events celebrate Two Spirit people, fostering intertribal connections and strengthening Indigenous traditions. Native artists, scholars, and activists are bringing visibility to Two Spirit identities, ensuring that future generations recognize and honor the sacred roles they have played in Native societies for centuries.
In reclaiming their rightful place in history, Two Spirit individuals are not only revitalizing Indigenous cultures but also offering valuable perspectives on gender and identity that transcend colonial constructs. Their presence and resilience serve as a powerful reminder that Indigenous ways of understanding gender have always been rich, diverse, and deeply spiritual. The movement to honor and uplift Two Spirit people is not just about the past—it is about shaping a more inclusive and decolonized future for all Indigenous communities.
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About the author
Taylor Adams is a writer and art historian. She is a Colorado native, born in Denver. She has an MFA in Art History with a minor in Ancient History and Mediterranean Archaeology at the University of Denver. With a passion for traveling and exploring culture, identity, and diversity. Her work delves into the intersections of art, society, and LGBTQ+ experiences. Through storytelling, she seeks to amplify marginalized voices and celebrate the richness of human expression in all its forms.